Documentation In Philosophy
APA Style
There are two chief concerns when it comes to citing and documenting material: accuracy and consistency. Whatever system of citation is used, a research writer must follow it closely and consistently.
The APA system emphasizes the date of publication, which must appear within an in-text citation. Whenever a quotation is given, the page number must also be provided:
Example:
Bonnycastle (2007) refers to "the true and lively spirit of opposition" (p. 204) with which Marxist literary criticism invigorates the discipline.
It is common to mention the names of authors you are citing in the body of your text, as is done in the example above. If author names are not mentioned in the body of the text, however, they must be provided within the in-text citation:
Example:
One overview of literary theory (Bonnycastle, 2007) has praised "the true and lively spirit of opposition" (p. 204) with which Marxist literary criticism invigorates the discipline.
If the reference does not involve a quotation (as it commonly does not in social science papers), only the date need be given as an in-text citation, providing that the author's name appears in the signal phrase:
Example:
Bonnycastle (2007) argues that the oppositional tone of Marxist literary criticism invigorates the discipline.
A citation such as this connects to a list of references at the end of the paper. In this case the entry under "References" at the end of the paper would be as follows:
Example Reference:
Bonnycastle, S. (2007). In search of authority: A guide to literary theory (3rd ed.). Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press.
Notice here that the date of publication is again foregrounded, appearing immediately following the author's name.
Notice too that all words in a title except the first word in the title, the first in the subtitle, and any proper nouns appear in lower case.
Example:
Bonnycastle, S. (2007). In search of authority: A guide to literary theory (3rd ed.). Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press.
Notice in the above example that both the title and the subtitle are in italics. The APA allows either italics or underlining for titles.
Most writers now seem to feel that italic type has a more attractive appearance than underlining does; that italics is the form used in published work (meaning that if you have used underlining and your work is then published, all that underlining has to be converted to italics); and that italics is just as easy as underlining to produce with word processing systems. For all those reasons, we use italics rather than underlining for titles in these pages.
The titles of works are not usually used in the body of the text. Titles of short works (such as articles, lyric poems, and short stories) should be put in quotation marks if they appear in the body of the text or in an in-text citation, with key words capitalized.
In the list of references, however, such works should not be put in quotation marks or italicized, and no words should be capitalized except the first word in the title and the first in the subtitle, if any.
The in-text citation comes directly after the name of the author or after the end quotation mark. Often, the citation comes just before the period or comma in the surrounding sentence.
If a quotation ends with punctuation other than a period or comma, then this should precede the end of the quotation, and a period or comma should still follow the parenthetical reference, if this is grammatically appropriate.
Examples:
The claim has been convincingly refuted by Ricks (2001), but it nevertheless continues to be put forward (Dendel, 2008).
One of Berra's favourite coaching tips was that "ninety per cent of the game is half mental" (Adelman, 2007, p. 98).
Berra at one point said to his players, "You can observe a lot by watching!" (Adelman, 2007, p. 98).
Garner (2005) associates statistics and pleasure.
If a parenthetical reference occurs within text in parentheses, commas are used to set off elements of the reference.
Example:
(See Figure 6.1 of Harrison, 2006, for data on transplant waiting lists.)
If the context does not make it clear who the author is, that information must be added to the in-text citation.
Note that commas separate the name of the author, the date, and the page number (where this is given).
Example:
Even in recent years some have continued to believe that Marxist literary criticism invigorates the discipline with a "true and lively spirit of opposition" (Bonnycastle, 2005, p. 4).
If a Web document cited is in PDF format, the page numbers are stable and may be cited as one would the pages of a printed source.
Many Web page numbers are unstable, however, and many more lack page numbers. In such cases, you should provide a section or paragraph number if a reference is needed.
APA suggests using either the abbreviation "para." or the symbol ¶. Remember that with APA style you need only provide information as to author and date if you are not quoting directly.
In a recent Web posting a leading theorist has clearly stated that he finds such an approach "thoroughly objectionable" (Bhabha, 2005, para. 7).
In a recent Web posting a leading theorist has clearly stated that he finds such an approach "thoroughly objectionable" (Bhabha, 2005, ¶ 7).
Bhabha (2005) has clearly stated his opposition to this approach.
Carter and Zhaba (2005) describe this approach as "more reliable than that adopted by Perkins" (Method section, para. 2).
If you are citing longer texts from electronic versions, chapter references may be more appropriate. For example, if the online Gutenberg edition of Darwin's On the Origin of the Species were being cited, the citation would be as follows:
Darwin refers to the core of his theory as an "ineluctable principle" (1856, chap. 26).
Students should be cautioned that online editions of older or classic works are often unreliable; typically there are far more typos and other errors in such versions than there are in print versions.
If you have consulted a re-issue of a work (whether in printed or electronic form), you should provide both the original date of publication and the date of the re-issue (the date of the version you are using).
Example:
Emerson (1837/1909) asserted that America's "long apprenticeship to the learning of other lands" was "drawing to a close" (para. 1).
The relevant entry in the list of references would look like this:
Emerson, R. W. (1909). Essays and English Traits. New York: P. F. Collier & Son. (Original work published 1837)
If you are citing work in a form that has been revised by the author, however, you should cite the date of the revised publication, not the original.
Example:
In a preface to the latest edition of his classic work (2004), Watson discusses its genesis.
If there are two or three authors, all authors should be named either in the signal phrase or in the in-text citation. Use and in the signal phrase but & in parentheses.
Example in the Signal Phrase:
Chambliss and Best (2005) have argued that the nature of this research is practical as well as theoretical.
Example in Parentheses:
Two distinguished scholars have argued that the nature of this research is practical as well as theoretical (Chambliss & Best, 2005).
In the body of the text, list the names of all authors the first time the work is referred to; for subsequent references use only the first author's name, followed by "et al."
Examples:
Chambliss, Best, Didby, and Jones (2005) have argued that the nature of this research is practical as well as theoretical.
Four distinguished scholars have argued that the nature of this research is practical as well as theoretical (Chambliss, Best, Didby, & Jones, 2005).
Use only the first author's name, followed by "et al."
Examples:
Chambliss et al. (2005) have argued that the nature of this research is practical as well as theoretical.
Six distinguished scholars have argued that the nature of this research is practical as well as theoretical (Chambliss et al., 2005).
Be sure to refer to the relevant organization and/or the title of the piece so as to make the reference clear. For organizations, recommended practice is to provide the full name on the first occasion, followed by an abbreviation, and then to use the abbreviation for subsequent references.
Example:
Blindness has decreased markedly but at an uneven pace since the late 1800s (National Institute for the Blind [NIB], 2002).
If the author of the electronic source is not given, the source may be identified in the parenthetical reference by a short form of the title.
Example:
The party's electronic newsletter said the candidate mentioned his role in the protests ("Globalization," 2004).
Some electronic sources do not provide a date of publication. Where this is the case, use the abbreviation n.d. for "no date."
Example:
Some still claim that evidence of global warming is difficult to come by (Sanders, n.d.; Zimmerman, 2005).
Works should appear in in-text citations in the same order they do in the list of references, i.e., alphabetically, by author's last name, and then by publication date.
Examples:
Various studies have established a psychological link between fear and sexual arousal (Aikens, Cox, & Bartlett, 1998; Looby, 1999a, 1999b, 2003; Looby & Cairns, 2008, in press).
Various studies appear to have established a psychological link between fear and sexual arousal (Looby & Cairns, 1999, 2002, 2005).
If the "References" list includes two or more authors with the same last name, the in-text citation should supply an initial:
Example:
One of the leading economists of the time advocated wage and price controls (H. Johnston, 1977).
In the in-text citation for a work in an anthology or collection of readings, use the name of the author of the work, not that of the editor of the anthology.
If the work was first published in the collection you have consulted, there is only the one date to cite. But if the work is reprinted in that collection after having first been published elsewhere, cite the date of the original publication and the date of the collection you have consulted, separating these dates with a slash.
The following citation refers to an article by Frederic W. Gleach that was first published in a collection of readings edited by Jennifer Brown and Elizabeth Vibert.
Example:
One of the essays in Brown and Vibert's collection argues that we should rethink the Pocahontas myth (Gleach, 1996).
In your list of references, this work should be alphabetized under Gleach, the author of the piece you have consulted, not under Brown, the editor of the anthology.
The next example is a lecture by George Simmel first published in 1903, which a student consulted in an edited collection by Roberta Garner that was published in 2001.
Example:
Simmel (1903/2001) argues that the "deepest problems of modern life derive from the claim of the individual to preserve the autonomy and individuality of his existence" (p. 141).
The reference list entry would look like this:
Simmel, G. (2001). The metropolis and mental life. In R. garner (Ed.), Social theory–Continuity and confrontation: A reader (pp. 141–153). Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press. (Original work published in 1903)
As you can see, in your reference list these works are listed under the authors of the pieces (Gleach or Simmel), not under the compilers, editors, or translators of the collection (Brown & Vibert or Garner).
If you cite another work by a different author from the same anthology or book of readings, that should appear as a separate entry in your list of works cited—again, alphabetized under the author's name.
If you are citing a source from a reference other than the source itself, you should use the phrase "as cited in" in your in-text citation.
Example:
In de Beauvoir's famous phrase, "one is not born a woman, one becomes one" (as cited in Levey, 2001, para. 3).
In this case, the entry in your reference list would be for Levey, not de Beauvoir.
The list of references in APA style is an alphabetized list at the end of the essay, article, or book. Usually, it includes all the information necessary to identify and retrieve each of the sources you have cited, and only the works you have cited. In this case the list is entitled References. If the list includes all works you have consulted, regardless of whether or not you have cited them, it should be entitled Bibliography.
In most cases the references list is alphabetized by author last name. For a work with one author, the entry should begin with the last name, followed by a comma, and then the author's initials as applicable, followed by the date of publication in parentheses.
Note that initials are generally used rather than first names, even when authors are identified by first name in the work itself.
Example:
Eliot, G. (2004). Middlemarch: A study of provincial life (G. Maertz, Ed.). Peterborough, ON: Broadview. (Original work published 1872)
Last names should in all cases come first, followed by initials. Up to six authors may be listed in this way. Use an ampersand rather than and before the last author.
Note that the authors' names should appear in the order they are listed; sometimes this is not alphabetical.
Example:
Eagles, M., Bickerton, J. P., & Gagnon, A. (1991). The almanac of Canadian politics. Peterborough, ON: Broadview.
Rather than name all authors, name the first six and then use et al.
Example:
Allain, P., Verny, C., Aubin, G., Pinon, K., Bonneau, D., Dubas, F., et al. (2005). Arithmetic word-problem-solving in Huntington's disease. Brain and Cognition, 57(1), 1–3.
If a work has been issued by a government body, a corporation, or some other organization and no author is identified, the entry should be listed by the name of the group.
Examples:
Broadview Press. (2005). Annual report. Calgary, AB: Author.
Broadview Press. (n.d.). Questions and answers about book pricing. Broadview Press Web Site. Retrieved from www.broadviewpress.com/bookpricing.asp?inc=bookpricing
City of Toronto, City Planning Division. (2000, June). Toronto at the crossroads: Shaping our future. Toronto: Author.
Works with no author should be alphabetized by title.
Columbia encyclopedia (6th ed.) (2001). New York: Columbia University Press.
If you have referred to only one entry in an encyclopedia or dictionary, however, the entry in your list of references should be by the title of that entry (see below).
The author's name should appear for all entries. Entries should be ordered by year of publication.
Examples:
Menand, L. (2002). The metaphysical club: A story of ideas in America. New York: Knopf.
Menand, L. (2004, June 28). Bad comma: Lynne Truss's strange grammar. [Review of the book Eats, shoots & leaves]. The New Yorker. Retrieved from http://www.newyorker.com
If two or more cited works by the same author have been published in the same year, arrange these alphabetically and use letters to distinguish among them (2005a), (2005b), and so on.
Entries for edited works include the abbreviation ed. or eds.
Example:
Gross, B., Field, D., & Pinker, L. (Eds.). (2002). New approaches to the history of psychoanalysis. New York: Duckworth.
A selection from a collection of readings or an anthology should be listed as follows:
Examples:
Rosengarten, H. (2002). Fleiss's nose and Freud's mind: A new perspective. In B. Gross, D. Field, & L. Pinker (Eds.), New approaches to the history of psychoanalysis (pp. 232–243). New York: Duckworth.
Crawford, I. V. (n.d.). The canoe. Representative poetry online. Retrieved February 17, 2005, from http ://www.eir.library. utoronto.ca/rpo/display/poem596
Gleach, F. W. (1996). Controlled speculation: Interpreting the saga of Pocahontas and Captain John Smith. In J. Brown & E. Vibert (Eds.), Reading beyond words: Contexts for Native history (pp. 21–42). Peterborough, ON: Broadview.
If a work is available both online and in a printed journal, you are not required to provide the URL; if you have consulted the electronic version, however, that should be noted as follows.
Example:
Earn, B., & Towson, S. (2005). Shyness and aggression: A new study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(3), 144–153. DOI: 10.1006/jpsp.2005.0722
List by the author of the entry, if known; otherwise, list by the entry itself.
Examples:
Marsh, J. (1999). "Canoe, birchbark." The Canadian encyclopedia (Year 2000 ed.). Toronto: McClelland & Stewart.
Saint Lawrence Seaway. (2001). The Columbia encyclopedia (6th ed.). Retrieved from http://www.bartleby. com/65/st/STLawrSwy.html
Films, radio or television programs, interviews, dramatic performances, musical recordings, and paintings should be listed as follows.
Examples:
Levinson, B. (Director). (1997). Wag the dog. [Motion picture]. Los Angeles: MGM.
Family farm vs. factory farm. (2003, November 23). Country Canada. Toronto: CBC. CBC Archives. Retrieved from http://www.archivescbc.ca/IDC-I-73-1239-6930/pig_INDUSTRY/ CLIP2
Examples:
Bellow, S. Interview. Books in Canada. Sept. 1996: 2–6.
Counts, D. A., & Counts, D. R. (1997, November 26). [Interview with Pamela Wallin]. Pamela Wallin Live. CBC Newsworld.
Rosengarten, H. (2005, January 21). [Personal interview].
Note that neither quotation marks nor italics are used for the titles of articles.
If no author is identified, the title of the article should appear first. If you are citing a printed version, you should give the page reference for the article.
Examples:
Gladwell, M. (2000, August 21). The art of failure: Why some people choke and others panic. The New Yorker. Retrieved from http://http://www.gladwell.com/2000_08_21_a_choking.html
MacRitchie, L. (2000, January). Ofili's glittering icons. Art in America. Retrieved from http://www .findarticles.com.ofili.j672.jn.htm
Shifting sands. (2005, February 12–18). The Economist, 46–47.
The basic principles to follow with newspaper articles or editorials are the same as with magazine articles (see above).
Note that APA requires that all page numbers for print versions be provided when articles do not continue on consecutive pages.
Examples:
Clash over Nobel cash. (1998, February 11). The Washington Post, A14.
Glanz, J. (2005, February 17). Iraq's Shiite alliance wins slim majority in new assembly. The New York Times, pp. A1, A12.
If you are citing an online version of a newspaper article you have retrieved through a search of its website, you should provide the URL for the site, not for the exact location.
Glanz, J. (2005, February 17). Iraq's Shiite alliance wins slim majority in new assembly. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com
The basic principles are the same as with magazine articles.
Volume number is considered part of the journal's title and should be italicized; issue number is given in brackets for journals that are paginated by issue.
For online versions you should include the digital object identifier (DOI) where available, as well as volume and issue number. If no DOI is available, you should cite a URL for the article (or for the home page of the journal if the URL is very lengthy or if the article is available by subscription only).
Examples:
Barker, P. (2004). The impact of class size on the classroom behaviour of special needs students: A longitudinal study. Educational Quarterly, 25(4), 87–99.
Hurka, T. M. (1996). Improving on perfectionism. Philosophical Review, 99, 462–473.
Roy, I. (2005). Irony as a psychological concept. American Psychologist, 58, 244–256. DOI: 10.1006/ap .2005.0680
Sohmer, S. (1999). Ways of perceiving maps and globes. Current Research in Spatial Psychology, 46(3). Retrieved from http://www.shu.ac.uk/emls/03-1/sohmjuli.html
Surtees, P. (2008). The psychology of the children's crusade of 1212. Studies in Medieval History andSociety, 3(4), 279–325. DOI: 10.1008/smhs.2008.0581
The name of the reviewer (if it has been provided) should come first, followed by the date and title of the review, and the information on the book itself.
Examples:
O'Hagan, A. (2005, February 18). Fossil fuels. [Review of the book Underground Energy]. London Review of Books. Retrieved from http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n04/ohag01_.html
Our fathers. (2005, February 11–18). [Review of the book Parenting: The other half]. 83.
In the case of online sources not covered by the above, the same principles apply. Where an author or editor is indicated, list by author. If the source is undated or its content likely to change, you should include the date on which you accessed the material.
Examples:
Brown University. (2006, May). Brown University. Women writers project. Retrieved February 28, 2009,from http://www.brown.edu/
LePan, D. (n.d.) The psychology of skyscrapers. Retrieved February 20, 2009, from http://donlepan.com
Profile of book publishing and exclusive agency, for English language firms [Chart]. (2002). Statistics Canada. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.ca/english/pgdb/arts02.html
Urban renewal is as much a matter of psychology as it is of bricks and mortar. As Goldberger (2005) has described, there have been many plans to revitalize Havana. But both that city and the community of Cuban exiles in Florida remain haunted by a sense of absence and separation. As Lourdes Casal (1998) reminds us
Exile
is living where there is no house whatever
in which we were ever children; (1. 1–3)
The psychology of outsiders also makes a difference. Part of the reason Americans have not much noticed the dire plight of their fifth-largest city is that it does not "stir the national imagination" (Rybczynski, 1998, p. 12). Conversely, there has been far more concern over the state of cities such as New Orleans and Quebec, whose history and architecture excite the romantic imagination. As Nora Phelps (1998) has discussed, the past is in itself a key trigger for romantic notions, and it is no doubt inevitable that cities whose history is particularly visible will engender passionate attachments. And as Stephanie Wright and Carole King (2003) have detailed in an important case study, almost all French-speaking Quebecers feel their heritage to be bound up with that of Quebec City. (Richard Ford's character Frank Bascombe has suggested that "New Orleans defeats itself" by longing "for a mystery it doesn't have and never will, if it ever did" [Ford, 1995, 48] but this remains a minority view.)
Georgiana Gibson (2004a) is also among those who have investigated the interplay between urban psychology and urban reality. Gibson's personal website (2004b) now includes the first of a set of working models she is developing in an attempt to represent the effects of psychological schemata on the landscape.
Casal, L. (1998, January 26). Definition. (E. Macklin, Trans.). The New Yorker, 79.
Ford, R. (1995). The sportswriter (2nd ed.). New York: Random House.
Gibson, G. (2004a). Cities in the twentieth century. Boston: Beacon.
Gibson, G. (2004b, June 10). Homepage. Retrieved from http:www.geography.byu.edu/GIBSON/personal.html
Goldberger, P. (2005, January 26). Annals of preservation: Bringing back Havana. The New Yorker, 50–62. Retrieved from http://www.newyorker.com
Phelps, N. (1998). Pastness and the foundations of romanticism. Romanticism on the Net, 11. DOI: 10.1008/rotn.1998.4611
Rybczynski, W. (1998, February 5). The fifth city. [Review of the book A prayer for the city]. The New York Review of Books, 12–14.
Wright, S., & King, C. (2003). Quebec: A history (Vols. 1–2). Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.